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Does the teaching of Science And Religious Education in schools contribute to the ability of students to consider complex contemporary ethical issues.
Introduction
'The eventual goal of science is to provide a single theory that describes the whole universe'. (Hawking, 1998) On the other hand, there is so much represented by the broad term 'religion' that science cannot address: Intuitions about the meaning and purpose of life, a sense of being 'at home' in the universe, and convictions about what is morally right.'(Thompson, 2000)
The teenagers of today are those who are going to help shape the ethical and moral basis of our society, the way in which we deal with the environment and provide for our citizens. It is sometimes suggested that moral and ethical considerations are not keeping pace with the effects on society of rapid advances in science and technology, particularly in the light of the declining influence of the established church, and this is therefore a matter of some urgency and importance.
It is suggested that there are a number of interrelated factors which may influence young people's attitudes and opinions. These factors, in turn may reinforce or oppose one another. Amongst them are:
1) The immediate and extended family, taking into account their educational and economic backgrounds.
2) The peer group which in turn may be influenced by the social mix it contains.
3) Prevailing cultural considerations such as society and government attitudes, and in particularly pop culture.
4) The school as an educational establishment, but also its own ethos and sub-culture.
5) Media presentations on topical issues, particularly those in which a moral dilemma is present.
With an increasing emphasis on Citizenship and PSHE within the curriculum and taking into account the expressed opinions of Local Education Authority advisory staff and other interested parties including my own position as a church leader this study was set up to determine whether or not Science and RE lessons actually have any particular influence on developing the moral stances that young people take.
Area of Research
The aim of the research therefore was to observe the varied influences on the young people's morality and in particular the part in which the teaching of these subject played . RE should teach about the religious influence on lifestyles in a multi-cultural society, and science makes possible the many changes manifest today. Local Education Advisory Teachers for these subjects have highlighted their own concerns within the context of learning citizenship rather than purely academic achievement and suggested that the impact of school was minimal in the formulation of moral outlook by children.
Methodology
Introduction and Summary
The question raised proposes that young people are little influenced in the development of their moral outlook by the educational process, and therefore it was decided to conduct this study mainly using techniques developed initially by Glaser and Strauss, a small-scale case study to investigate the validity of the theory.
'Case study is concerned principally with interaction of factors and events and as ( Nisbet and Watt 1980) point out, 'sometimes it is only by taking a practical instance that we can obtain a full picture of this interaction' (Bell 1999). It is recognised that small-scale research, such as this, does have limitations as far as developing generisable knowledge is concerned; however it is the contention that it reflects and is pertinent to the locality in which it takes place, and may therefore be generalised to other similar situations. If there is a phenomenon in that children develop a moral and ethical stance, It should be possible to describe that process, and from that description determine the part the educational system contributes to the whole. To collect the necessary data the following methods were used:
1. Semi-Structured Interviews with students. The prime aim of these was to determine whether students had developed moral views and, if they had, the factors which had influenced them.
2. Participant Observation. The aim was to observe the students whilst being taught Science and Religious Education, in particular where ethical or environmental considerations were involved in that teaching. The main purpose was to complement the information gained from the interviews by measuring the impact of teaching on the students. It was not intended here to measure 'academic success' for which accurate and up to date data is readily available.
3. Examination of regulatory and advisory documentation. The purpose of this was to see what, if any, the expectations of the Education system were, particularly in these two subject areas.
Theoretical Framework
Initially a comprehensive questionnaire was developed to enquire into those factors which influence young people, and to provide the socio-economic background of those who participated. These answers could then be analysed and the different influencing factors could be identified and quantified.
'Quantitative researchers collect facts and study the relationship of one set of facts to another. They use techniques that are likely to produce quantified and, if possible, generisable conclusions. (Bell 1999). As explained later this was considered to be a less than satisfactory approach and some elements of a 'Grounded Theory' approach were incorporated.The grounded theory is a method of qualitative research and is an inductive approach, using a systematic set of procedures to arrive at a theory about basic social processes. The aim of this approach is to discover underlying social forces that shape human behaviour by means of interviews with open-ended questions and through skilled observations.' (The Royal Windsor Society for Nursing Research).
'One does not begin with a theory then prove it. Rather one begins with an area of study and what is relevant to that area is allowed to emerge.' (Boise State University) (Strauss and Corbin 1990) define a grounded theory as 'one that is inductively derived from the study of the phenomenon it represents.
Whilst the 'grounded theory' approach formed one element, (Grieg and Taylor, 1994) writing about researching with children suggests that a 'pluralistic' approach to research methodologies is more appropriate than holding rigidly to any one in particular. Therefore, the study became pluralistic with some data analysed quantatively, the majority using a qualitative approach . (Hammersley and Atkinson 1995) describe such research as an ethnographical approach and cite a number of effective examples from an educational setting. This supports the choice to use an ethnographic case study using pluralistic techniques incorporating grounded theory.
In order to answer the research question several others had to be answered:
1. From whom was the data to be gathered?
2. Exactly what data was needed?
3. How was the data to be gathered?
4. How was that data then to be analysed?
5. Were there other issues such as Child Protection, Confidentiality, and security of Data?
Selecting the Sample
'The decision of where to locate an ethnographic case study is normally a matter of careful consideration and assessment with the advantages and disadvantages of various locales being carefully considered. Because of my circumstances, my choice reduced to a straightforward decision between doing my research at the school where I worked and abandoning my desire to do an ethnographic study' (Hammersley & Atkinson 1995 quoting Pollard 1985). During discussions with professionals interested in this sphere it became apparent that the question could be answered by surveying those interested in this age group, teachers, parents, youth workers etc. Some of these already held strong opinions and therefore I would merely be repeating already arrived at conclusions. I decided to survey children themselves, to gain their perceptions and see whether they supported the positions determined by their mentors. To do this access had to be gained to a sufficient number of students in an appropriate age group whom I could observe and interview freely. In order to gain maximum value from the research, this body of students needed to be representative of the general population in which it stood. The educational experts suggested that an appropriate age group would commence at 11 or 12 years old, when they were being formally taught how to develop ideas, and stop at 15 or 16 when their major focus transferred to success in exams. I had a good relationship with a High School with a role of about 900 which could provide access to this age group. Statistics of the social and economic breakdown of this area, supported by my own ground experience of the area show that the pupils reflect that social mix, and therefore provide a suitable pool of candidates from which a snapshot could be taken and conclusions drawn.
Identifying Target Groups.
Further discussions with staff at that school, for curricular and organisational reasons, led to a decision to centre the main research on three particular year groups, years 8, 9 and 10, children roughly between the ages of 12 and 15. In practice some year 7 and 11 students volunteered information and some observations with these groups were undertaken by invitation. This was further narrowed down, for practical reasons, my own availability mainly, to have the main focus on three 'tutor groups' in RE and three 'sets' in Science. In all, a core of about 150 children; over 15% of the school, would be involved in some way. Tutor groups as used in this school are deliberately diverse in composition and therefore maintain that reflection of the social diversity of the school. They are drawn from year groups and therefore could be said to represent that year. Science 'sets' are determined according to ability. The consequence of sets is that it is more difficult to ensure socio-economic reflection. In order to minimise any possible skew, sets were chosen which were neither the academic 'high flyers' nor composed of those at the bottom of their range. Another factor in choosing the groups was to involve staff with wide a range of experience and teaching style. This again was to try to minimise any skew due to staff experience and personalities. All Interviewees were Volunteers. No person was pressurised into taking part, nor was anyone who wanted to have an input, turned down. This caused a problem in that the time initially allocated for interviews was too short and had to be extended. However by choosing to do this it helped overcome a further problem with identifying Key Informants, those whom you expect to have and to be able to express their viewpoints.
'Good informants are people whom you can talk to easily, who understand the information you need, and are glad to give it to you or get it for you.'( Hammersley and Atkinson 1995)
The method used ensured that those who took part were there purely by self selection
Gaining Access.
'Seeking the permission of gatekeepers or the support of sponsors is often an unavoidable first step in gaining access to the data. And the relationships established with such people can often have important consequences for the subsequent course of the research.' (Hammersley and Atkinson 1995). Entry to the setting presented no practical problems because of my existing relationship with the school. My research could in some ways be perceived as questioning staff effectiveness in their professional roles, and my presence had the potential to upset the dynamics of those classes which I was be involved in. Discussions about the project began with the head, then extended down to the Senior Management Team, on to Year and Subject heads and finally the class teachers. This, together with ongoing formal and informal contacts, overcame this potential difficulty and provided free access to the school and complete support in conducting the research. During these discussions, questions of confidentiality, anonymity and security were addressed in order to ensure that neither teaching staff, nor pupils would feel threatened by the research or inhibited in responding to it. 'Gatekeepers, sponsors, and the like... will operate in terms of expectations about the ethnographer's identity and intentions.' (Hammersley and Atkinson 1995)
Setting a Timetable
. 'The issue of sensitive periods is something that (Bell (1999) explicitly remarks on' (from Hammersley and Atkinson:1995). Bell acknowledging the limited time available to researchers and the difficulties this issue can cause. With the gatekeepers assistance a particular school term was identified where the research could most effectively take place, avoiding particularly stressful times, and when the material being delivered in the classroom was most relevant to the study. Within that term a basic timetable was negotiated, which however was not restrictive, and complete freedom was given to track students outside this schedule as the research led. There is the danger as Hammersley and Atkinson point out of the researcher being manipulated into situations which can be totally controlled by the gatekeepers. The fact that I had an existing track record of classroom observation with another subject area over a reasonable period of time, that I was seen as a 'supportive' person rather than a 'threat', helped in gaining the trust and co-operation for this research and giving the freedom needed to make meaningful observations.
The Data Needed
Most ethnographic research, however, has been concerned with producing descriptions and explanations of particular phenomena or with developing theories rather than with testing existing hypotheses. (Hammersley and Atkinson 1995).In order to have valid results to determine the process which young people went through it was necessary to gain the following data:
1. A description of the young person and their social background.
2. A description of how they spent their leisure time, including such things as Television viewing habits.
3. A description of their perception of the educational process in specific areas.
4. A description of their own moral/ethical outlook.
5. A description of how that had developed.
Many of the answers could be quantified, for example how much time was spent watching a particular program or playing a particular sport. But these answers still left the question as to how much that influenced their life, how strongly views were held, how much was a considered response and how much merely regurgitated. So the data required had an additional dimension, not just fact, but impact. It became apparent as the data was gathered that many answers required further probing in order to determine that added dimension, even to pursue new data items not previously considered.
Methods of Data Collection
In determining the methods of data collection those selected had to fulfil the twin criteria of reliability and validity (Bell 1999). Triangulation is described as ' cross-checking the existence of certain phenomena and the veracity of individual accounts by gathering data from a number of informants and a number of sources and subsequently comparing and contrasting one account with another in order to produce as full and balanced a study as possible'. (Bell 1999)
A Questionnaire. As previously stated it was originally intended to circulate a questionnaire to gather the data. Considerable effort went in to the questions to be asked, the way in which they were to be answered and the way the document was to be presented both for ease of use and subsequent entry into a computer database for analysis. After further discussion with staff and in the light of their previous experience it was decided that the response to written questions was unlikely to be good because:
a. 1. It was not possible to ensure any response would reflect the whole school community. 2. A 100% response could not be expected, therefore there was likely to be a skew towards the more literate.
b. It was more likely that group responses rather than individual opinions would be reflected, and, unless followed up by interviews, that individual impact mentioned above could not be determined.
c. It would be difficult to ensure that the answers were honest and reliable.
d. Overcoming these difficulties by supervision was difficult, disruptive and time consuming to organise.
Therefore this approach was abandoned and it was decided to use the designed questionnaire as the guide for semi-structured interviews feeding in to its attendant computer database. The database contains the basic results of the interview with each participant; the voice recording and its transcript are held separately.
The structure of the Interview
Before each session the teacher explained the purpose of the interviews to the class and that the children were free to participate or not. In fact there were no problems with obtaining participants and the period allowed for this phase was extended to accommodate all who wanted to take part. Holding information on individuals on computer is governed by the Data Protection Act. Each volunteer who took part was able to ensure that only information they personally approved was included, that they could have a copy of it; they understood the purpose for which the data was held, and the absolute confidentiality of that information.
'There is always a danger of bias creeping into interviews, largely because, as Selltiz et.al. (1962:583) point out, 'interviewers are human beings, not machines', and their manner may have an effect on their respondents.'(Bell 1999)
There was a twofold danger of bias in these interviews.
1. What answer would the teacher want or expect? Because we are in a school, working with children, the environment and the hierarchy tends to influence the responses the children make.
2. What answer would please Chris? Many of the students know me from other activities and relationships develop particularly in relaxed, informal lunchtime sessions.
Each session therefore began by emphasising that there were no 'right or wrong' answers, that no one else in the school, even their own teacher, nor anyone outside of school, even their own families, would have access to them, they were totally confidential. Questions were asked in such a way as to trap out answers designed to please the questioner, mainly by asking the same question in a number of different guises. Even with such steps in place it is almost impossible to eliminate this bias completely but. By being aware of it when interpreting the answer, influence on the final result can be minimised
The questionnaire had been designed to allow input into a computer database. A laptop computer with the question and answer displayed on screen, visible to the volunteer at all times, was used during the interviews so that the respondents could observe and verify the data being stored. This gave the volunteer confidence in that there views were being truly represented. The form, being based on the original questionnaire also acted as the outline structure for the interview. This was important to ensure that all the required data had been obtained by the end of the interview, at least as far as it was possible to do so. The interviews were, however, not totally rigid in structure, a large degree of freedom was allowed in order to allow the participants to pursue their own particular concerns. Such additional data was picked up on the voice recordings, and then could be added to the database or subjected to separate analysis, whichever was most appropriate... 'Freedom to allow the respondent to talk about what is of central significance to him or her rather than to the interviewer is clearly important, but some loose structure to ensure all topics which are considered crucial to the study are covered does eliminate some of the problems of the entirely unstructured interview.'( Bell 1999)
From the outset in the process of interviewing it was found that it was more productive in terms of the children's contribution to have two in the room at the same time rather than one individual. Each volunteer chose their own partner, nearly, but not always, of the same sex. These pairs were not related but usually knew each other very well through social connections. Each was quite open to describe personal details, even quite intimate family circumstances in the presence of their partner. The pairing provided a measure of mutual support . It helped ensure the honesty of the answers in that they would often challenge one another's response to a question if they felt it was not the complete truth. In the more subjective areas of the interview they often sparked off one another and viewpoints, opinions, were brought out in a way which it might have been difficult to achieve in a one on one interview. A comfortable, private area of the school was used for these interviews. For child protection purposes this area could be observed by a responsible member of staff who always knew who was in the room. At the same time, for the purposes of confidentiality, they could not see, nor hear the children's answers.
The two pupils were taken in to the room where the lap top computer was already set up. They were put at ease and then the nature of the research, how their answers would be used and the confidentiality of any information they gave was explained again, as was their right to not answer any question or take part at all if they so chose. Part of the relaxation process was the use of a digital camera to take their photographs so personalising their entry in the database. They all received prints of these photographs, a kind of bribery. This photo session often became extended, with special permission being gained, mainly by girls, but occasionally boys too, from the teacher, to prepare them to ensure that they looked their best. This was time well spent in that it did mean that by the time the interview proper began they were completely relaxed about the process. Personal information was then entered following the on screen layout. This information was factual, name, age, number in family, television programs watched etc. They were able to see and amend this information as it was entered or ask that it not be included. On no occasion were answers refused or deleted although they were sometimes amended. This was usually to reflect more accurately their family circumstances, particularly when those families' relationships were complex. Once this basic information was completed, a microphone attached to the computer was switched on and their responses to further questions were directly recorded for future transcription.
'Glaser recommends against recording' or taking notes during interview of other data collection session.' (Quoted in SCU, Grounded theory, a thumbnail sketch, from Web 27/12/00). Whilst I understand that recordings can inhibit the interview, and transcription is time consuming and tedious, I found that there were more advantages to the method than disadvantages. Firstly , memory alone will not recall all the nuances of what the respondents said, and only by listening to those interviews many times was it possible to hear what the implications of was really being said could be understood.. Secondly, because the respondents could hear, and correct the replay it re-enforced their confidence in the process. Finally, in practice the recording became part of the background and very soon had little influence on the direction of the interview.
During this part of the interview it was important that for the most part the questions asked were open questions, framed in such a way as to avoid leading the respondent to a particular conclusion. However, on occasion, a leading question,particularly one which opened the possibility of an answer opposite in nature to the oneexpected proved useful. 'Indeed, a useful tactic is to make the question lead in a direction opposite to that in which one expects the answer to lie, and thus avoid the danger of misleadingly confirming one's expectations - though one must take care that this does not undermine one's identity as a competent participant in the eyes of the interviewees.(Hammersley and Atkinson 1995) Sometimes a deliberately provocative question, with an apparent expected answer, stimulated further discussion, thereby bringing out additional useful information. Answers to questions very often lead to further questions, in particular when both respondents taking part fed off each other. Once the interview was concluded the participants had the opportunity to listen to the recording and make corrections or reject the interview if they so wished. On no occasion did this happen.
Participant observations.
In addition to the semi-structured interviews the research involved observing the educational process in action. This took place in the classroom, occasionally followed up in more informal surroundings or through participation in other activities. These sessions were really another form of interview but interviews with extended participation. The gatekeepers and I decided against pure observational methods for example using a clipboard and set out and score able observation targets. Instead I chose to be an active participant. Observation, particularly if accompanied by a clipboard makes both staff and pupil uneasy and hesitant and can lead to both parties being inhibited and therefore giving an unrealistic scenario. Active participation made recording more difficult but went a long way towards making a 'natural' setting. Partly this was because I was an extra pair of competent hands for the teacher, someone whose own knowledge of the subject could be utilised and whose relationship with some of the children, especially the more difficult ones, could be of assistance. Partially because the children found someone else, other than the teacher who could help them in their work. My presence did nevertheless introduce bias into the situation; there was a visible 'halo' effect which had to be taken into account. As the term progressed and my presence became more usual this effect diminished but never completely went and had to be taken in to account when analysing the findings
The pattern of a particular session determined how observation took place. The term had been chosen because the majority of the science lessons contained an element where there was a strong potential ethical component, and the majority of the RE lessons were ones in which the religious element had direct relevance to the way society functioned. Some of those controversial areas can be seen in the questionnaire The following patterns were observed:
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1. The teacher would introduce the topic; children would then work on their own from textbooks or worksheets of some kind. During such lessons I would observe during the input stage and then target specific children by getting alongside them.
2. The teacher would create discussions groups or whole class question/answer sessions. In these I would either participate as a group member or sometimes be set up to respond to the children's questions. One of these was recorded for further study.
3. The teacher would organise a focus group for me to lead, based around an activity or experiment of which I had personal experience, knowledge or expertise.
4. In some 90% of cases these formal sessions lead to small informal group discussions during or after class and with or without teacher participation.
This kind of observation is perhaps best described as Bell (1999) 'Participant observation' who then quotes 'Cohen and Mannion (1994:110-111) 'The accounts that typically emerge from participant observation are often described as subjective, biased, impressionistic, idiosyncratic and lacking in the precise quantifiable measures that are the hallmark of survey research and experimentation.' to draw attention to some of the criticisms levelled at such methods of observation: She goes on to conclude 'your role is to observe and record in an objective a way as possible and then to interpret the data you gather There are a number of ways of categorising and quantifying observations in meetings but as mentioned above most of these were considered inappropriate and therefore a scheme of note taking was devised where at appropriate intervals during, or immediately afterwards a commentary was made. The students became used to a small Olympus DSS voice recorder which was used for this purpose. They were familiarised with the machine by being allowed to make their own recordings, playing them back and erasing them when finished. As with the formal interviews, if the student's own words were recorded for the research, they had the opportunity to review the recording at the time.
The Key points looked for were basically those which could supplement the information gained from the interviews:
1. Were they connected with the lesson?
2. Were they active or passive in the lesson?
3. Did they see any relevance of the topic to their life or the community around?
4. Were the issues important and real to them?
5. Were they thinking or simply regurgitating information...
6. Did they relate this topic to similar ones in different subjects?
These results were given scaled values. As it was not possible to remark on every student these observations were restricted to that subset, usually four to six students, of the class with whom I had been working,.
Analysing the Data
The three data collection methods were taking place within the same time frame and so there was a large degree of reflexivity taking place as information gathering progressed. The final analysis was undertaken as follows:
Documentary Evidence
There existed a considerable body of documentary evidence readily available, including agreed Syllabi, National Curricular requirements, OfSted and Panda reports, specific lesson plans and school policies which set out what should occur. There was also a body of evidence from internal school; data and, in some cases from Panda and OfSted, what was actually achieved. This was analysed by Category and Key Word to determine what official expectations and outcomes are. This provided an educational backdrop against which the data gathered in this case study can be displayed.
Data regarding the student's socio-economic background was obtained and then translated into National Statistics Socio-Economics Classifications. This data was transformed into graphical form to present the social context within which the research took place. It also provided a comparison between the sample of the school population and the population of the local catchment area.
Data regarding leisure activities, because it can be assigned numeric value and specific label, was easily extracted, and contributes to the portrayal, again graphically of the participant's lifestyle, in order to identify potentially influential factors.
Participant Observation
The data was in the form of notes which set out the topic for the lesson, the aim of that lesson and the form which the lesson took, in other words it was based on the particular lesson plans. It contained general comments on the dynamics of that particular lesson, included comments by students or staff during the lesson and the 'scoring' according to the scheme. Approximately 20% was in written form, the remaining 80% was derived from taped comments. On one occasion a whole lesson was recorded with the teacher's permission. Because of the recording method used this data was analysed as the project progressed, the results tabulated as soon as possible after the lessons
therefore allowing significant themes to be specifically watched for in subsequent sessions. In addition an informal review of each session, without compromising confidentiality, inviting comment from all involved members of staff, was conducted as soon as possible after it finished.
The data gathered was analysed with two primary aims:
1. What light did it shed on the documentary evidence, and to what extent did it amplify or support that evidence. The commentary was
examined in detail and noted against the table of points derived from that written evidence
2. How did it corroborate the evidence in the semi-structured interviews? A table was generated in which scores were recorded and which were summed with those from the interviews to give overall scores. Specific and pertinent student's comments were transcribed to add to those of the interviewees.
Scoring System
When marking the strength or weight of particular labels I adopted the following system:
Definitely none -1
No effect at all 0
Trace 1
Significant 2
Strong 3
Very Strong 4
The -ve provided a balancing factor rather than just scoring no effect, because, on initial analysis there was no case in which such a score was appropriate. This system was common to both the above and following data sets.
Semi-structured Interviews
Different analysis techniques were required for the main body of evidence, the usually four to six students e hours of recorded interviews. Formal transcription of these interviews took place as required for detailed analysis rather than on block, as this was potentially a daunting task even
with voice recognition software assistance. In addition, even whilst the interviews were taking place, certain Key themes or categories were beginning to emerge. These were noted at the time and could then be compared with the detailed examinations as they took place. This concords with (Hammersley and Atkinson 1995) who say 'the analysis of data is not a distinct stage of the research...This iterative process is central to the 'grounded theorising' promoted by Glaser and Strauss, in which theory is developed out of data analysis, and subsequent data collection is guided strategically by the emergent theory...'.
The questionnaire around which the interview was structured contained a number of questions. These can be placed into groups as follows:
1. Category questions. These have only one possible answer, e.g. how old are you? These were generally provided the biographical data in the questionnaire.
2. List questions. These provided a selection of answers which were then summarised to give an overall pattern. Examples are 'what TV programs do you watch?'
3. Quantity questions. These add emphasis to the list questions which then amplified that pattern.
4. Rank questions. Questions were a judgement had to be made, for instance 'what is your favourite....?' These answers have a 'weighting' which can be summarised and the various elements placed in order.
5. Open questions, the bulk of the interview. In analysing the following three stage process was used.
a. The first stage took a small random selection of four transcripts. These were analysed in detail looking for Key themes, codes, which were labelled. In addition particular and distinct phrases, ways of expression peculiar to the young people were highlighted. The analysis of the first interview was essentially an open minded examination, seeing what would emerge. The second and subsequent
interviews were examined in the light of what had already emerged. ' The initial task in analysing qualitative data is to find some concepts to help us make sense of what is going on...The aim is to do so in an analytical way that provides a novel perspective on the phenomena we are concerned with or which promises to tell us much more about other phenomena of similar types. (Hammersley and Atkinson 1995)
b. The second stage was to group the key themes into groups or categories and to compare between the four interviews. These were then tabulated. As this sorting and comparison took place the process was refined to assign 'weight' to each of these categories and key themes. This included attempts to determine how strongly the view was held and how that opinion was reached. Degrees of commonality between the transcripts were also noted to further identify the major themes. Comparison was made with the commentary on participant observation previously taken, identified themes which were being re-enforced and showed others emerging. Tables were then updated recording these findings.
c. Stages a & b were then repeated with another set of transcripts and the two sets compared, the results correlated and incorporated into the tables.
d. The final stage progressively refined and narrowed down those findings pertinent to the research question. This repetition continued until it became apparent that no new themes were coming to light and that saturation point had been reached. Any remaining interviews were listened to so that verification of saturation point had been established.
A Note on Ethical Considerations. 'Informed consent' was the principle involved in determining and the gathering the data for this research.All participants needed to understand the reason the data was gathered, the uses to which it would be put, and how it would be kept secure, because potentially at least, some of it was not in the public domain, was personal and sometimes intimate. ('Hart and Bond(1995)), writing about action research in health and social care, provide examples of different types of codes of practice or protocols which require researchers to ensure that participants are fully aware of the purpose of the research and understand their rights. Some are designed to be read out at the start of interviews, explaining that participation is voluntary, that participants are free to refuse to answer any questions and may withdraw from the interview at any time. Most promise confidentiality and anonymity...(Bell 1999) Bell goes on to state that some of these protocols, even signed agreements are difficult to fulfil in practice. As this research was conducted on children it was even more important that high ethical standards were maintained, that no promises were made which could not be fulfilled in practise and that the informed consent of the school as well as the participants was obtained.
Once completed the database was burnt on to a CD ROM for archiving and the original copies on the computer thoroughly erased to prevent any possibility of unauthorised access. The voice recording and its transcription are linked to the database rather than integral to it and therefore can be separated and anonymised for the purposes of quotation.
A note on Data Collection using audio recording. Properly conducted I believe this to be a richer means of gathering data. The voice conveys information which the pen does not, at least when constrained by questionnaire. However it is important that such recordings are listened to more than once, indeed several times over a period of time. They must also be of good quality, not marred by background noise, distortion or weak signal. This is to ensure that information is not missed, particularly that conveyed by 'tone' of voice as much as the words used. It is also to ensure that what was said is what was really said and not an own interpretation of the words. Even if one is sure that all the content has been correctly received their remains one vital element of communication missing, that of the non-verbal communication. Rather than a still camera, a video camera might have been more effective. However that is probably more intrusive and therefore more of a distraction. Adequate written notes or commentary must be taken particularly where an expression gets its emphasis by non verbal means or where comment is made non verbally.
Results
Derived From The documentation
The Ofsted manual for school inspection places a strong emphasis on the duty of a school to provide for pupils spiritual, moral, social and cultural development. A course text by Danes referring to this provides differentiated texts which seek to explore with the student current issues and the steps to be
taken in coming to moral standpoints. Quoting Midgley et al, Pupils spiritual, moral, social and cultural development involved them in making connections between their own experiences; the stories and traditions of their own communities and the wider stories of his global world which we all share.
This group of teachers conducted a study in their own school to find the impact of cross curricular PSHE.
The Agreed syllabus for Religious Education has an aims and approach section contains the following:RE should make a central contribution to the spiritual, moral, social and cultural development of pupils.The pupils will thus become more familiar with the human dimensions of the world they live in, more respectful of some of the less immediately obvious values in the civilisation of which they are heirs, more able to reflect critically on ideas and values, and better able to play a responsible part in the generation of their own culture.the approach should also foster an honest and disciplined exploration of the moral and spiritual dimensions in a manner which is relevant to the pupil's experience of life.
The school's Religious Education Policy and attendant schemes of work adhere closely to the agreed syllabus.
The Science in the National Curriculum booklet At Key stage 3 covering the majority of pupils in this study has no specific section on ethics. Application of Science states consider the benefits and drawbacks of scientific and technological developments in environmental and other contexts. other point's refer to quality of life and the environment.
At key stage 4, covering the year 10 and 11 pupils there is, again under application of science,consider the power and limitations in addressing industrial, social, and environmental issues and some of the ethical dilemmas involved. Under The nature of Scientific ideas consider ways in which scientific ideas may be affected by the social and historical contexts in which they develop, and how these contexts may effect whether or not the ideas are accepted.
Information about the Sample
It was necessary to ascertain the validity of the sample as a reasonable representation of the population from which the school drew its pupils.
Over a period of one term 41 students were involved in detailed, semi-structured interviews; in addition 120 sessions of participant observation took place in classes of approximately 25. There were also lunchtime informal sessions at the drop in centre which I ran twice per week. This meant that approximately 200 students in all were involved, or 20% of the school population. It was shown that the students in the detailed interviews closely matched the expected ethnic mix with a vast majority, 85%, white European. The only group without formal representation was the Asian community who have about 6% of the population, although even they were frequent lunchtime visitors and gave some input there.The social class breakdown also proved truly representative, the majority being in the middle ranges and the top and bottom classes being more or less equal.
The gender split was 54% female, 46% male, Social groups 5 and 6 were in preponderance with 56% of the total and almost half were in the middle of the main target age group. The range of staff involved in the lessons ranged from newly qualified to highly experienced department heads. There were also members of the teaching, behavioural and technical support staff.
The quantitive results
Leisure Time
48% of students leisure time was spent around the TV, in order of popularity watching soaps was first, sitcoms came second and chat shows third. Some sport featured but very rarely news or documentaries. Music took up another 22% of the time, either listening or watching such programs as MTV or videos. Computers took up around 19% particularly with boys, the main use being for computer games although there was a significant homework element, particularly by girls. Internet chat also featured very highly, again mainly by girls. Reading only took up only some 3% of the time, girls reading J17 and other similar girl's lifestyle magazines. Boys who did read generally preferred sports periodicals.Playing sport took about 4% of their leisure time, mostly through organised team activities.
Academic Features
When surveyed about the subjects they liked and disliked it was found that Science proved the least favourite subject by a large margin, around 19% indicated that they disliked it, found it boring, found it irrelevant. Drama was found to be the most popular subject with around 20% voting for it. The reason given was it made them think about, and then portray their understanding of issues relevant to them...
RE an almost insignificant number of students, around 2% expressed either a liking or disliking.When asked about subjects which had the most or the least influence on their thinking Science was voted third in the least influential subjects, with Maths least influential and French second. Science does not generally produce high academic results, both French and maths do. RE scored the highest total as the most influential subject, with drama and geography also having very significant impacts.
A comment on Science and RE teaching.
Science lessons without an experimental 'hands on' component are often boring which increases the tendency towards disruptive behaviour. This in turn leads to even more restrictive lesson plans. It is therefore little wonder that it scores poorly in the popularity questions. Similarly RE often requires large amounts of copying from given texts. Little scope for pupil interaction is apparent in a reasonable proportion of observed lessons. More adventurous teaching methods may improve the impact of these subjects.
Social Context
Bad Behaviour.
The first important issue identified was the local neighbourhood as a place to live. Litter, vandalism, graffiti and dirt were common complaints, in about 60% of interviews, violent behaviour was a very major concern in almost all the students, lack of anything to do leading to boredom was a further one. A comment from one young girl was that she would not go into the local park because 'someone might jump out of the bushes at you'. It was strongly felt by many to be a dangerous place to go and many anecdotal incidents were cited. When asked about the litter and other dirt they openly admitted that they were partly to blame, but 'everybody did it'. They knew who the major trouble makers were in the area but 'you didn't grass someone up', 'if you did they'd get you'. When asked who should sort it out, the Government, the Police and the Council were the answers. Over two thirds strongly or very strongly thought that had no influence with these bodies and that their concerns went unrecognised or unheard. Typical statements were 'they take no notice, we're only kids', and 'we're too young, what do we know ',' they don't listen to us', and they don't take notice of our mum's and dads so they won't bother with us' They say (often the police) that they'll do something about it but they never do'. This was a typical complaint about the authorities do nothing about their complaints, providing
solutions to problems they didn't have and sadly schools were seen as part of that syndrome.
Respect
The phrase 'lack of respect' or something similar was strongly expressed n around half the interviews. When asked what they meant they said things like 'them that scatter litter don't respect the place, 'vandals don't respect other peoples property', 'grownups don't respect us', 'we don't respect the police cause they don't respect us' The way they described their attitudes suggested that 'respect' in personal relationships was something which had to be earned and could so easily be lost. The way you knew you had achieved respect was when youngsters came up to you, offered their fist and said 'respect'. The response was to touch their fist with yours. It didn't mean they agreed with you, but it did mean that a relationship was there where they felt they were being treated fairly and being listened to.
Family Relationships.
During one participant observation session a year nine boy was proving uncooperative and disinterested. The experienced teacher was trying to get the pupils to read and comment on a passage about the caring nature of God and the comparison with a father figure. I was asked to sit alongside the boy to try to encourage him. His immediate response was he wasn't going to read it, it was a lot of rubbish, the language used was somewhat more colourful and the manner defiant. After some time he began to open up to me and I discovered that his real dad was extremely violent towards his mum, they separated and she made a new relationship. This step dad beat her so badly she is no longer able to work. These facts were later confirmed. The 'caring father' figure was not one with which he could easily identify. In his experience the norm was for fathers to be violent towards their wife's, he may have been told it was 'wrong' but for him it was 'normal'
A second, not dissimilar interview involved two year eight girls. One had a stable family home; the other lived with a grandparent. The reason she lived there was that her parents had split up and each was living with a new partner. Neither of her these new partners wanted her, she felt rejected by both natural parents who had chosen partners before her and the only reasonably tolerable abode was with her grandmother. 'Family stability' was the ideal or 'right' condition, her grandma told her so and that's what her friend had, but normality for her was instability, lack of caring and a feeling of being unwanted and unloved.
These interviews suggested to me that there was very little the classroom process, however good, could do to overcome the deep impressions made by the family circumstances. The overwhelming emotional scarring in the boy's life prevented any detached, academic presentation from entering into the thought processes which he used to determine his own understanding. In the second case life experience was of almost total rejection leading to deep emotional scarring and a very transient view of life. No amount of theory was able to penetrate the barriers she had set up as a means of self protection.
Whilst this sensitive subject of relationships was not directly asked in the interviews from the information freely given the general understanding is that a major proportion of the children come from split families and that some of the new arrangements are not to the entire satisfaction of the children. They live with new brothers or sisters who in some circumstances are favoured over them. In one family of five children only one was the offspring of both parents, four were from previous partnerships and one of those was related to neither of the parents, having been passed on during an earlier split. Violence, poverty, instability, feeling unwanted and unloved were common expressions. One youngster after an evening school function had to be taken around various relatives before she found a place to sleep that night. Whilst I have no figures to support these contentions, and investigating school records would contravene confidentiality, my involvement with welfare and disciplinary issues would strongly support what they said.
Poverty
The area from which they come is highly deprived and the effects of this are little understood. One school inspector said after visiting a particular class suggested that they all be given work to do on their own home computers. In reality, a third of that class had neither the space, nor the quiet area, nor the computer to meet his suggestions. Less than a quarter of them could afford to have a computer at all. One girl reported her mum as saying 'tell them Hell is here' when she told mum she had volunteered to be interviewed...
Fairness & Injustice
'It's not fair', 'how did he get away with that?', 'why was she thrown out? ' An area which had not been considered in the original design was the influence of school/home discipline on the learning process. However the results showed that the application of discipline, its perceived appropriateness and fairness, and its consistency were found to be very influential in the children's development. None of the participants complained about strict discipline, in fact many suggested that at school it should be more rigourous than it was. They also strongly felt that those causing problems in society were receiving to lenient sentences. What they very strongly complained about was unfair discipline, especially when they felt the full story wasn't checked before they were punished. A second strong complaint was inconsistency, receiving different punishments for the same offence in different classes.
Contemporary Topics
There were two specific areas which were investigated because of the prominence they had in the media, this had been taken up by the soaps and it had relevance to some of the class material in both subjects.
The first of these related to Genetic Modification. 78% of those asked thought that cheap food, the major selling point of GM according to the media, was good, 18% had a question mark over it. 28% thought GM food bad, with 50% being undecided, 28% thought GM animals bad with more, 56% undecided. The reasons given for uncertainty or opposition were based either on uncertainty as to the outcome, for example pollution or long-term effects on health, or that it was interfering with nature,
The second area revolved around reproductive or health technology, and its impact on health and relationships. In the case of cloning animals only 11% thought it good, 50% were not sure, double, 22% thought cloned organs were good but 62% were unsure. Cloning people was totally and always wrong. Again the reasons given were interfering with nature, uncertainty of long term effects and particularly in humans 'you wouldn't want a lot more like me', or it wouldn't be fair if you had a whole team of Bechams'.
Only 6% thought embryo research was good, the slight majority 56% being totally against. When broken down into areas where such research was considered to be useful, 89% were against it to produce spare parts or to obtain a particular child, 67% were against prolonging human life, or the elimination of illness. It was strongly expressed that they felt it to be cruel, unnatural, interfering with nature. One boy said 'he wouldn't want to be left behind if all his friends had died earlier', another said 'getting old and dying was all part of life', another expressed similar sentiments about illness and coping with that. The idea of being able to prevent children being born with hereditary illness or disabilities was strongly disagreed with as they felt that every child had a right to life and to be loved for who they were.
72% said surrogate mothers were bad, even if they did help couples who could otherwise not have children. They felt it unfair on child and mother. They strongly felt that childlessness was something which had to be accepted 'maybe you're not meant to have kids'. They also felt that adoption of unwanted or otherwise parentless children was a better option. Going on to discuss what made a good family and good parents, caring, loving and being able to afford came top of the list. 78% felt that marriage was in itself not important although stability was. Only 6% felt it was really important. Same sex partnerships were felt to be bad by 39% and 61% felt it depended. There was more antagonism towards homosexual relationships amongst boys 'Adam and Eve not Adam and Steve was one comment' than girls. 40% felt that single sex couples would make bad parents, generally because they felt the children themselves suffer, firstly through inappropriate role model, secondly through teasing or worse from other children. 33% were unsure but some of them felt provided the couple had the means and were truly caring it could be ok.
Conclusion
It would be very simple to declare a confirmation of those previously arrived at conclusions that education in those subjects had little or no influence on a Childs moral development because this study found much evidence to support that. The home experience, followed by the media, then peer pressure took the forefront, finally, apparently education brought up the rear.
Taking these elements in order, It was found that the family and extended family provided both positive and negative influences on the children.
1. Where a family was stable and caring a strong positive influence on the children was found. This was irrespective of social class or economic well being. There was also a measure of reinforcement if the family was part of a faith community where values were shared with a number of other families. Such children generally had a sense of their own security and worth and their beliefs followed the family line quite closely. The open discussions which took place within these families increased the child's security and removed the need for barriers thus allowing them to be more open in considering other opinions and standpoints.
2. Where a family had a more complex and unstable structure this was very much reflected in the children's attitudes. They were less sure of themselves, less confident in dealing with independent thought, more prone to being influenced by current trends in the media. They were very likely to have self protective behaviour which included having easy relationships with non threatening fictional situations, e.g. soap operas or with peers who were themselves were in many cases from the same unstable background. If their closest friends were from a similar background this tended to provide a reinforcement of their own negative outlook. If, however, these children did develop strong relationships with friends from stable and nurturing families it was often seen that their values and behaviour were modified in a positive way and more closely approximated those of this substitute background.
The peer group.
Out of school and playground chatter were major influences on children's patterns of behaviour and moral values, second only to the family. This chatter, in very many cases set and reinforced the type of T.V. program watched, the types of music listened to and the type of activities engaged in. There were groups where there was mutual support in sporting activities, in homework, in drama, in music and dance. These in general were very positive in their influence on the development of mutual values Sadly, many children followed the negative influences of those who felt it more appropriate to ape adult trends in drinking and sexual activities, or were involved in vandalism and general anti-social behaviour The social mix seemed to have little or no influence on these peer groups, but there was a trend towards mutual support for the elements mentioned above. There was an obvious and strong desire on the part of the children to belong, to be recognised as a member of or to be part of the in crowd. This related to fashion as well as all the other aspects mentioned.
Prevailing cultural considerations such as society and government attitudes, and in particularly pop culture.
1. Society and it's sub-cultures provide strong role models for the children. There was a very strong sense that the behaviour patterns displayed by the leading figures of those groups could be considered appropriate for them. It seemed to matter little what the actual rules said, it was the ways those rules were perceived to be applied in the lives of leading figures which actually counted. There was little differentiation between actual figures and fictitional characters in this matter.
2. Media presentations on topical issues, particularly those in which a moral dilemma is present are inextricably linked and are not totally independent of family or peer group influence. Pop music of the teeny bop type where scantily or provocatively prepared young men and women certainly reduce the age at which youngsters, particularly female become open to sexual activity and where their desired lifestyle mimics that of these glamorous beings. It was found to turn the early teen 'crush' into a more active imitation and proved more likely to lead to casual, more adult, relationships. The older age group, listening more to R&B or garage styles were more influenced by the themes of promiscuity, drug culture and aggressiveness. The lifestyles portrayed in such as Eastenders and Coronation street were perceived as 'normal' adding to the lack of appreciation for stable family relationships, and adding to the view that to have pleasure it was necessary to go to the pub and drink. This latter was a serious problem in the area with children obtaining alcohol and succumbing to it's effects in year 8 and 9 children. The soaps, with the associated playground chatter provided perhaps the strongest influence on the views on surrogacy. Media presentations on Genetic Modification and Cloning had a strong influence reinforced by chatter ,but those on same sex relationships or values seemed to be largely ignored against the background of peer or family values.
The school proved to be more than just an academic educational establishment, it came complete with it's own live ethos and changing sub-culture. The classroom experience has a profound influence on the learning achievements of the pupils, not only in an academic sense but also in life application. The popularity of a particular subject was not necessarily a good indicator of it's effectiveness, although the ethos of the department did contribute. Popularity had more to do with what an individual liked doing. PE, music and art were popular but not influential. Science and maths were both unpopular and had little influence, geography was not particularly popular but was very influential as
was RE. Drama was both popular and influential. In this last case a particular session provided a particular illustration
One of the groups I was working with was given the task of portraying, in a drama presentation what bullying meant to them. This subject was regularly part of PSHE, RE and general discussions around discipline. Most pupils treated it casually and in the formal setting made poor responses, those who were the victims said nothing for fear of further aggravating their situations. In the drama studio a group of eight 13/14 year old girls had a little less than an hour to write, rehearse and present what I felt was a difficult, even taboo subject. A short play was written, one girl cast as the victim, one as a member of staff, another as the ringleader of the bullies. The victim gradually became more isolated, the bullying group got larger, the attacks became more severe and it seemed that the teacher had little sympathy for the victim, indeed even blamed the victim for unruly behaviour started by the bullies and did not take any steps to bring the situation to an end. Eventually the victim became almost suicidal and this was noticed by an elder sister who took matters into her own hands, gathered a group of friends who caught the ringleader and gang raped her. The victim regained street cred, and became very popular again. It was very powerful and very emotive for all concerned and those of us who observed. Normally indifferent children had taken the ordinary and transformed it into something extraordinary making a social judgement on a common ill in many schools by equating it with perhaps the most horrible of crimes.
Student participation, engagement with the subject matter, room for experiment, a stimulating environment where clear boundaries are set proved to be the, as far as the classroom was concerned, the most effective for learning and developing thought. Sadly in neither RE nor
Science were these conditions usually met. Most sessions were restrictive, for very plausible reasons, and the exceptions proved the rule.
Little surprise then that neither subject figured highly in the popularity stakes. The high score for RE in the influence table then became a conundrum. On further analysis it was noted that in the best lessons group or whole class discussions could become lively and thought provoking, besides bringing out previous prejudices and adopted positions. It was further noted that the subject fed on occasion into lessons such as drama, and more often into general chatter. It was further noted that from it's best lessons science also contributed to this ongoing conversation..
It must therefore be finally concluded that there were considerable self, or society imposed barriers to be overcome if the teaching of these subjects is to have a major positive impact on these children. Because these barriers and other influences are so strong there is little evidence to show that the teaching of RE or Science directly contributes to the moral development of children. However, indirectly, through general discussion at peer and family level it can have a significant effect, in particular where the school itself provides an environment where the children feel valued, safe and have a clear identity within and with the school.
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